A brief history of herbal medicine. (649 hits)
Category: Science & EnvironmentalRating: -1.65 on 25 reviews (Rate this item) (V)
Submitted by <wazron.at.buggerorf.net.au> (View user info) at 2005-12-09 04:49:39 EST
It would be impossible to ascertain the time during which the human animal began to categorise healing herbs and their uses to be referred to in times of sickness. The use of herbs for foodstuffs, flavourings and decoration is known to have been practiced since the dawn of humanity, and the point at which point the use of herbs stopped being culinary and started being medicinal is beyond modern knowledge. It has only been comparatively recently in history that this knowledge has become entrenched and widely available, thanks to the development of the written language, which allowed herbal knowledge to spread beyond the limitations of direct master-student relationships.
Any study of the development of herbalism quickly shows that although herbal knowledge was widespread and herbal healing practiced anywhere that humans lived, it is impossible to separate the great names of herbalism from the practice itself. Although any village, in any culture, at any time after the development of agriculture would likely have a practitioner of the herbal healing arts, these healing techniques were the province of particular individuals and most commonly were passed along only once or twice in a lifetime. The development of literacy allowed information to be passed along in the form of writings rather than oral teachings, and these writings were not limited to being taught only once, nor to only one student.
It was after the widespread development of literacy amongst the world's different cultures that the earliest herbal manuals were created. This essay starts its examination of the subject with the Pen Ts'ao of Shen Nung (also Shen Nong) and its later contemporary the Huang Di Nei Ching of Huang Di, the 'Yellow Emperor'. The Pen Ts'ao is still used as reference manual today, under its modern Chinese name, 'Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing' or 'the Divine Farmer's Materia Medica'. The original work was recorded in approximately 2800 BC and listed 366 plant drugs, including Ephedra sinica, a plant that continues to provide relief for the symptoms of naso-respiratory infections such as influenza and catarrh today. Shen Nong has also been credited by the Chinese with the introduction of the mold-board plough (allowing the transition of their society from semi-nomadic to agrarian) and tea (Camellia sinensis) .
The Pen Ts'ao was the first true and comprehensive Herbal manual of the Chinese culture. Some disagreement exists concerning the existence of Shen Nong- he is described by Herbal historians such as Barbara Griggs as a real person but alternatively by Chmelik as 'mythical' . It is likely that the Pen Ts'ao was written by another person and named for Shen Nong as its inspiration, as writing was not developed to any great extent during the reign of Shen Nong.
Huang Di, on the other hand, did leave a directly written reference of his work, as his reign coincided with the widespread development of literacy among the Chinese ruling classes. Sources date his reign and the creation of the Huang Di Nei Ching somewhere between 800BC and 200BC and this volume laid out the basis for what is now recognised as Traditional Chinese Medicine .
The first written records of Herbalism from a culture other than Chinese come from the Sumerians , . Their civilisation was extant prior to 2200BC and left both prescriptions and medical manuals in the form of clay tablets. Their culture subsequently inspired that of the Babylonians, whose King Hammurabi constructed a library/public records office estimated between 1792-1750 BC which included, scribed on its walls, references to dozens of plants including Glycyrrhiza glabra, or Liquorice, Mentha viridis (Mint) and Hyoscyamus niger (Henbane) .
The next complete Herbal manual recovered by modern study was Egyptian, in the form of the Ebers papyrus, named for its discoverer and translator, Georg Moritz Ebers. It is thought to date to approximately 1550 BC and contains symptomatic guides to hundreds of common afflictions, such as arthritis, broken bones, helminthic infestation and depression, as well as 700 prescriptions for the afflictions so described .
There is little evidence of any real research or development of non-Chinese medicine between the issue of the 'code of Hammurabi' in approximately 1350 BC, and 500 BC, when the Ancient Greek civilisation began to prosper and flourish. However, during roughly this period, Huang Di was creating the Huang Di Nei Ching as discussed above. During this period there was also an introduction among Indo-European cultures the practice of trade caravans. Knowledge of herbal techniques spread along with the herbs and spices themselves, which were enormously successful trade items due in general to their rarity, their actions, and their comparative value-to-weight ratio over other goods such as arms or precious metals. Goods such as Opium poppy (Papaver soniferum) , Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) , and Myrrh (Commiphora molmol ) were traded through the growing networks of wandering caravans.
It was during the period of 500BC to 450 BC that the Ancient Greek Golden Age started. Greece became a melting pot for the ideas of many other cultures, developing and categorising the arts and sciences. Thus were born the disciplines of Philosophy, Politics, Geometry, Mathematics and Medicine. The latter of these gave rise to Hippocrates of Cos, the 'Father of Modern Medicine' . Hippocrates receives this honourific due to his abandonment of superstition as a part of healing and his insistence on the dual concepts of diagnosis and prognosis .
Hippocrates and his contemporary Aristotle (384-322 BC) had a profound influence on the author of the first known Greek herbal manual, Diocles of Carystius . He wrote the Rhizotomika in approximately 400 BC, a manual to preserve known medicinal herbal capabilities for the use of the doctors of Greece.
During the first century AD, Crataeus the Physician wrote a herbal manual at the direction of Mithridates V1 Eupator, King of Pontus , for whom the herb Agrimony, Agrimonia eupatoria was named . Mithridates was particularly interested in the actions of poisons and their antidotes. The Roman Epigrammatist Martial (40 BC-104 AD) mentions these interests in a rhyme aimed to irk Cinna, a prominent member of Roman society of the time:
By daily making himself sick/with miniscule drops of Arsenic,
King Mithridates once built up/immunity to the poison cup
In the same way does your small, vile dinner
Save you from death by hunger, Cinna .
Pliny is also recorded as having commented on a novelty in Crataeus' work: "painted likenesses of plants" were included with each plant listing, thereby making Crataeus' Herbal manual the first known to include a visual guide to the identification of the plants it described .
Other herbals of then-contemporary times included those of Herophilus of Chalcedon (who worked at the Great Library of Alexandria and was also the first Anatomist , demonstrating that the heart pumped blood around the body), Andreas of Karystos (Physician to Ptolemy Philopator ) and Appolonius Mys .
Alongside the emergence of Crataeus was that of the well-known Greek physicians Pedanius Dioscorides and Galen. Dioscorides was the author of the then-definitive Peri hulas iatrikes (Latin: 'De Materia Medica'), a guide to herbs and their medicinal uses, which was subsequently translated into every extant scholarly language. Many of Dioscorides' works only survive today in their Greek or Latin translations, and his works were held in high regard for 1500 years after their publication . Far from being a mere theoretician, Dioscorides was a surgeon in the armies of Nero and learned much of his healing craft on the ancient battlefield.
Galen, on the other hand, who might be considered the first 'Allopathic' doctor in a historical and ethical sense, was primarily a theoretician whose work took much from the then-400 year old works of Hippocrates and perpetuated a number of errors which adversely affected the progress of medicine for the same amount of time as Dioscorides' herbal was influential. Included in his errors was the belief that the circulatory system circulated air rather than blood, despite the well-known teachings of Herophilus (qv). His adherence to the Hippocratic concept of the four humours meant that although his knowledge of herbs was extensive, his knowledge of the interactions of these herbs and the patient's biology was less accurate. The fallacy of the air-carrying blood vessels, for instance, prevailed until William Harvey proved in 1628 that Galen was clearly wrong in this regard . Another of Galen's advances was polypharmacy, or treatment with compounds of many different medicinal substances rather than solely one or two. Apparently working from the theory that the more compounded the medicine, the greater its effectiveness (and cost), it might be thought that wealthy patients of the famous Galen were cured as much by placebo effect generated by the expense of their medicine as by the medicine itself. Much as modern doctors advocate expensive, acutely effective cures, Galen developed medicinal substances such as Theriac, a compound of dozens of herbs, wine, honey, bitumen and the flesh of snakes, that took years to mature but was supposed to make one proof against all illnesses and poisons.
Whether or not it achieved this aim is not part of the historical record, but Theriac (or Galene, as it was renamed during the Dark Ages) continued to be manufactured until 1645 . Galen was also an enthusiastic proponent of bloodletting and catharsis (or purging), which were supposed to expel 'foul humours' from the body. Inspired by Galen's reinterpretation of Hippocrates' least accurate medical studies, the course of Allopathic medicine was mostly confined to Galenic methods of purge and bleed until the Eighteenth Century . It was the Galenic insistence on prescribing on the basis of established techniques only rather than on the basis of known or researched patient interactions that gives rise to the modern day concept of Allopathic medicine as cold, impersonal, and not foremost taking into account the patient as a whole.
Galen's longevity can in part be attributed to the fact that he was the last of the great herbal publishers immediately prior to the fall of the Roman civilisation, therefore his works did not have the chance to be disproved or improved before the Dark Ages made medical research and information sharing near-impossible .
As the first great advancement of Western herbal medicine ended with the fall of the Roman Empire, the Chinese system of medicine was beginning to undergo a dynamic acceleration of efficacy. Taoist and Confucianist philosophies of balance, such as Yin and Yang, were incorporated into the healing philosophy of Chinese Medicine. It was in the works of Bian Que that acupuncture was formalised as a counterpart to Chinese herbalism . Bian Que proposed that as Chinese medicine had adopted Taoist philosophy, it must have a counterpart. He proposed that as herbs were of the earth, and concerned themselves with physical healing, that they must represent the principle of Yin. Therefore the counterpart principle, the Yang, must be esoteric; the alteration of energy meridians by use of diverting tools. Initially these had been rocks, often heated, but Bian Que introduced the use of the needle and was rewarded with greater success than the previous practitioners of the system , . It was Bian Que who integrated the practice of herbalism with all other medical techniques available in China at the time, thus advancing all them synergistically.
Zhang Zhongjing and Hua To were the foremost of the post-Bian Que Chinese physicians circa 110-220 AD. These two both assisted in the final refinement and completion of the work initiated by Shen Nong and Huang Di and advanced by Bian Que. Zhang learned much from Bian Que's approach and published a medical manual, the Shan Han Lun, which prescribed treatment with both herbs and acupuncture as counterparts to each other. Hua To was insistent on healing within the framework of Taoist dualist philosophy, and his work with anaesthesia with poppies and the herb Mafei San was groundbreaking within the Chinese culture. Hua To also pioneered 'animal play', a series of exercises mimicking the postures and activities of animals, which is likely to have been a forerunner of Chinese exercise systems such as Tai Chi and Gung Fu . It could well be said that the Chinese were practicing holistic medicine, of which the use of herbs played a major role.
Western European herbalism was essentially dormant during the first three hundred years after the fall of the Roman Empire. The Romans withdrew from Britain in 407 AD, their soldiers and colonisers leaving behind libraries, baths, roads and the inevitable physic gardens that went along with Roman healers.
The Druids, who had been practicing their own medicine since approximately 1000 BC, absorbed the body of herbal medical knowledge left by the Romans upon their withdrawal. The Welsh in particular regarded medicine as one of the three 'civil arts' necessary to the prosperity of the Welsh people as a whole. A medical school dedicated to Hippocratic herbal healing was established at Myddfai during the sixth Century .
It was not until the advent of Christianity in the British Isles in 597 AD that many of the works of Galen, Dioscorides and others was made generally available to the networks of religious orders that came to settle around the land. The monks and druids each worked towards greater understanding of each others' forms of medicine even as the age of the Druids came to an end during 600-800 AD .
During the early ninth century, in Salerno in Italy, another medical school was established and based strongly around the Hippocratic principles. This was to contribute towards the migration of Graeco-Roman medical knowledge to the Arabs, as Salerno was a trading port that served as a nexus for the intelligent and scientifically-minded Arabs. It was at Salerno that the great works of the masters came into the possession of their traders and were subsequently made available to the translation houses of Cairo, Damascus and Baghdad. Hunayn bin Ishaw al-Ibadi (809-873AD) translated the major works of Galen, Hippocrates and Dioscorides into his native Arabic . Immediately there was a progression within the Arabic culture of both knowledge and capability in regards to sickness and injury. This gave rise to the first great Arab physicians: Ar-Razi (eng. Rhazes) (865-925AD) and Avicenna (980-1037AD).
Rhazes was a student of the Hippocratic School and proposed the key to health to be moderation. He suggested that a person should eat adequately, sleep to a sufficient degree, and ensure enough exercise was taken. He also disdained the Galenic polypharmacy in his writings: "Where a cure can be obtained by diet, use no drugs, and avoid complex remedies when the simple will suffice."
Avicenna was of the Galenic school, however, in both nature and giftedness. He drew much information from the works of Galen, and wrote a book known to Arabs as As-Quanum or the Canon of Medicine. This was a work of a million words, which was the final fusion of Greek, Roman and Arabic healing knowledge .
During the early-to-mid tenth Century in England, between Rhazes and Avicenna, the 'Leech Book of Bald' was written at the direction of Bald, thought to be a friend of King Alfred the Great (Leech referring both to the bloodsucking annelid and by colloquial association, those that used them to bleed their patients). Bald, and his colleagues Dun and Oxa, wrote a health guide which drew from the Greeks, the Romans and the local knowledge of those around him, including the Druids. It could be that Bald was writing for a wider audience than simply the monastic practitioners as his work was written in the Anglo-Saxon vernacular and included remedies for hangovers, headaches, fatigue, sleeplessness and many other minor disorders .
Constantine the African (1020-1087 AD) was a monk who worked on the translations of many of the works of Arabic lore into Latin at the medical school in Salerno. For the first time, during the mid-eleventh century, the complete extant works of the Greeks and the Arabs became available in Latin alongside those of the Romans . Constantine's work inspired Gerald of Cremona (1114-1187 AD) to found the Montpellier School and translate Avicenna's Canon, in itself the work of a lifetime .
The last great work of Western herbal medicine between the time of Gerald of Cremona and the fourteenth century was that of John of Gaddesden, the 'Rosa Medicinae', which brought together the knowledge of all of the major groups known. Thus Druidic and Celtic (by way of Roman), Greek, Hebrew and Arabic knowledge was combined and preserved in Latin, which was by that time emerging as the universal scholarly language of the time .
By this time, Galen's polypharmic teachings had been firmly established as the prevailing dogma by what was becoming a medical industry, run by a conservative body. His (and thus Avicenna's) works were the most detailed and therefore 'scientific' of all the works in existence at the time. Because of this, few Doctors would prescribe a 'simple', or single effective herb, when a far more exotic and costly compounded cure could be provided. Speculation may be grounded for this approach, as continual medical studies have shown the 'placebo effect' to be a real phenomenon, and the more impressive the medicine, the more likely it is for the placebo effect to work.
The initial blow to Galen's authority came with the advent of the first great wave of the Black Death in 1348. For the first time, the known world was wracked by an affliction that no healer could stop. In less than a year it is thought that the Black Death claimed the lives of a third of Europe's population, and even the formidable nostrums of Galen were powerless before it.
Those that survived the Black Death counted themselves lucky and the production of both vernacular and Latin texts, and the physic gardens that provided the materials with which they worked was increased to meet demand. However, Galenic medicine's prestige had suffered badly and the medical establishment seemingly punished for their hubris.
By the end of the 1300's, the people of Europe were between the Black Death and the scourge of Syphilis, which was to emerge in 1498, and some were looking to alternatives to the authoritarian but newly vulnerable Galenic medicine. This was to be found in the use of mercury, useful to treat open, infected sores by the Muslims that opposed the crusades in the form of an ointment called Saracen's Salve. This was to be the creation of a whole new form of medicine, by the application of mineral 'simples' rather than herbal. Use of metallic compounds was to take over from herbal compounds as a part of the orthodoxy of the fifteenth Century onwards.
User Reviews
Submitted by RyuFu (user info) at 2005-12-09 13:10:49 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
so like check this out this one time I was rolling some fatties with a couple of buds when all of a sudden superman burst into the room riding a horse only the horse was invisible but we could smell its shit so we told superman to leave the horse outside and he did by he fisted it first and it exploded and it was totally fucking awesome. Then we all ate marshmallows but the fire was in the middle of the room because of superman's heat vision but then he died because we told him he was christopher reeves and it was like teh funny.
Submitted by Iago (user info) at 2005-12-09 11:47:17 EST (#)
Ranking: 2
Fuck that, i thought this was interesting. Presumably you wrote this for a university assignment?
Submitted by AlahAckbar (user info) at 2005-12-09 11:15:46 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
1) Nice copy paste
2) hit enter once in a while.
Submitted by Vix (user info) at 2005-12-09 10:47:32 EST (#)
Ranking: -1
Holy paragraphs Batman
Submitted by MistressFist (user info) at 2005-12-09 10:12:44 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
My head just exploded trying to read this. Is there an herbal remedy for that?
Submitted by Jeanneee (user info) at 2005-12-09 10:01:03 EST (#)
Ranking: 0
WTF I'm not reading all that
Submitted by leilani (user info) at 2005-12-09 09:48:33 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
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Submitted by Creepy_guy (user info) at 2005-12-09 09:47:07 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
There is no problem that a thigh-power assault crotch can't solve.
Submitted by redskieslookfake (user info) at 2005-12-09 09:35:41 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
Submitted by sinna (user info) at 2005-12-09 08:21:10 (#)
Ranking: -2
Submitted by redskieslookfake (user info) at 2005-12-09 07:23:26 (#)
Ranking: -2
Suffer the death of a thousand cuts.
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Change it to cunts and that's the way I'm going out! Cun't wait.
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I actually mistyped it like that before. I did think about leaving it.
Submitted by Maddog (user info) at 2005-12-09 09:27:50 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
anal leakage
Submitted by zoobie2000 (user info) at 2005-12-09 09:22:33 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
wank
Submitted by HighVoltage900 (user info) at 2005-12-09 09:22:09 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
I started reading this to learn about ganja! Not this bull shit.
Submitted by DudeThatsBOSH (user info) at 2005-12-09 09:21:03 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
well screw those guys, I thought this was good, and ranked accoringly.
Submitted by ozzy (user info) at 2005-12-09 09:13:36 EST (#)
Ranking: -1
Submitted by WildcatMcGee (user info) at 2005-12-09 09:03:33 (#)
Ranking: -2
This caused a slight leakage in my anal pheromone gland. How disturbing.
Submitted by WildcatMcGee (user info) at 2005-12-09 09:03:33 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
This caused a slight leakage in my anal pheromone gland. How disturbing.
Submitted by sinna (user info) at 2005-12-09 08:21:10 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
Submitted by redskieslookfake (user info) at 2005-12-09 07:23:26 (#)
Ranking: -2
Suffer the death of a thousand cuts.
-----------------------
Change it to cunts and that's the way I'm going out! Cun't wait.
Submitted by redskieslookfake (user info) at 2005-12-09 07:23:26 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
Suffer the death of a thousand cuts.
Submitted by Berty (user info) at 2005-12-09 07:19:28 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
Add spaces, cut it by about 50% and chuck in a few knob gags. A charming anecdote about buying hasish in Morocco would be nice as well but it's your post.
Submitted by sinna (user info) at 2005-12-09 07:17:41 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
Did you just copy and paste a website?
Submitted by Method (user info) at 2005-12-09 07:14:02 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
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Submitted by skrapmetal (user info) at 2005-12-09 07:04:21 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
Submitted by Quale (user info) at 2005-12-09 05:06:47 (#)
Ranking: -2
Could you make it any harder to read? Don't answer that.
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What he said. <squints and rubs eyes>
Submitted by fluff (user info) at 2005-12-09 06:40:13 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
No Comment
Submitted by a_reader (user info) at 2005-12-09 06:05:46 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
Your other posts have paragraphs. How the fuck does one possibly regress into this level of stupidity?
Submitted by Dreg (user info) at 2005-12-09 05:08:33 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
no peyote = -2
Submitted by Quale (user info) at 2005-12-09 05:06:47 EST (#)
Ranking: -2
Could you make it any harder to read? Don't answer that.